Tacit Knowledge on Maps: A Discussion Centered on the Location of the Wailuo on the Zhongguo gu hang hai tu in the Beinecke Library
Received date: 2023-02-16
Revised date: 2023-03-03
Online published: 2023-06-13
The Beinecke Library of Yale University owns an ancient Chinese sea atlas, Zhongguo gu hang hai tu, which has attracted considerable scholarly interest over the last three decades. In 2018, Wing-Sheung Cheng published his research monograph focusing on this atlas. However, his identification of certain geographical features is problematic; in particular, the Wailuo (外罗), depicted several times in the pages of the Zhongguo gu hang hai tu, is identified as either Robert Island or Money Island in the Paracel Islands. Based on comparison with other sources, which invariably place the Wailuo near the coast of modern Vietnam (Cù Lao Ré), it is concluded that Cheng misread the cartographic representations of the atlas. In order to better elucidate the causes of this misreading, this paper introduces the epistemological concept of "tacit knowledge," coined by the philosopher Michael Polanyi (1891-1976), into the study on the history of cartography. Tacit knowledge as a notion has developed different meanings since Polanyi, and is construed as the opposite of explicit knowledge. Matthew H. Edney has championed the investigation of the mapping process rather than simply the mapping practice in the history of cartography. It is argued that the mapping process of ancient nautical charts involved tacit knowledge, which was not fully inscribed into or depicted on the charts. Acknowledging and revitalizing such tacit knowledge is of paramount importance to the study of the history of cartography. Because modern and scientific cartography has transcended and obfuscated the mapping process of ancient sea charts, tacit knowledge is sometimes ignored or misinterpreted, which eventually results in ancient maps and charts becoming seemingly unintelligible. Therefore, the underlying cause for Cheng's misreading of the Wailuo can be attributed to his over-reliance on the explicit knowledge drawn on the pages of the atlas, and ignorance of the rich tacit knowledge that was passed down through generations of Chinese seafarers, until it was overtaken by modern sea charts. This case study also echoes recent debates regarding the progress and setbacks in the history of cartographic studies in China. It shows that theoretical exploration is capable of facilitating the improvement and long-term viability of the history of cartography in the Chinese language world.
Yannan Ding . Tacit Knowledge on Maps: A Discussion Centered on the Location of the Wailuo on the Zhongguo gu hang hai tu in the Beinecke Library[J]. Tropical Geography, 2023 , 43(5) : 783 -794 . DOI: 10.13284/j.cnki.rddl.003647

1 引文中的加粗字体系原文所有。
2 匿名. 中国古航海图. 耶鲁大学贝尼克图书馆,https://collections.library.yale.edu/catalog/16563284,下载日期:2021-05-07。
3 关于它的再发现、传播和研讨的历史,前引文献中已有介绍,兹不赘述。该图本无图名,学者们各有不同的命名方式。本文依据收藏机构称之为《中国古航海图》。
4 “默会知识”,或译作“隐性知识”“意会理论”“意会知识”“缄默知识”等。1958年,迈克尔·波兰尼于北斯塔福德郡大学学院(今英国基尔大学,Keele University)在“林塞纪念讲座”中提出这一概念,其讲稿次年出版(Polanyi, 1959);另见文献Gascoigne等(2013)。笔者依据的是郁振华(2012)46的译法。
5 中文世界对迈克尔·波兰尼的翻译和引介始自上世纪80年代,本世纪以来愈加丰富(迈可•博蓝尼,1985;迈克尔·波兰尼,2000;2004;2006;2017a;2017b)。
6 这句话的原文是“our knowledge may include far more than we can tell”(Polanyi, 1961)467。
7 关于knowing how与knowing that之间的联系与区别,参见郁振华(2012)69-102。
8 此处“实证式的”指以文本考订和图像描述为特征的地图学史研究方法,它认定地图就是地理事实的陈述(maps are statements of geographical fact)。它同理论之间存在一种表层上的紧张乃至互斥的关系,参见文献Edney(1996)。
9 将地图学视作过程的学者还有罗伯·基钦(Rob Kitchin)等人,参见文献Kitchin等(2007;2013)。
10 页序依据贝尼克图书馆将该图集电子化后给定的图幅序号(不含地图册封面、扉页,等)。
11 李山岛(Đảo Lý Sơn),即惹岛(Cù Lao Ré)。又作理山岛,郑永常书中作李仙岛。位于今越南中部广义省(Quảng Ngãi)海域,距离海岸约28 km。紧邻李山岛有一个更小的伯拜岛(Cù lao Bờ Bãi),在有的古地图上二者构成“广东群岛”(P. Canton及其变体)。两岛总面积约10.39 km2。
12 冗字“在”系郑著原文所有,“八更”或系抄录“七更”时的笔误。
13 即贝尼克图书馆序号第5r图。值得注意的是,这个自南向北的相对方位与自北向南的完美互补,见第7r图上的文字标记,“外罗一更外开,用丙午取跤杯外过。”
14 在古代罗盘上,“单子及子癸”,即朝向正北方或北略偏东方。钱江等(2013)7认为,校柸是“越南归仁港东面Phuong Mai一带的海角”。笔者认为或为归仁港外东北方近海小岛。无论是哪种情况,均位于李山岛的南方,因而需朝北航行至外罗。
15 此处以“常规南海航线”指称常用的、广为人知的商贸航线,以区别于偶发航线,例如,在遭遇台风、捕鱼、打捞沉船货物等情况下实际采用的航线。
16 也称《塞尔登中国地图》或《雪尔登中国地图》。牛津大学图书馆称之为The Selden Map of China。
17 该《更路簿》抄写时间在1930年前后。
18 其绘制和使用方式类似于西方近代航海中发展出来的对景图(front view)或海岸轮廓图(coastal profile)。赖进义(2017)173称之为“景观定位法”,“以行船者站在船头观测有关景物时产生的视觉感受而绘制,山形、地物以写景法表示”。
19 此外,他还写道:“经纬度的测验是以Google GPS来进行,由于一些地名位于沿海或海岛上,GPS测定时会稍微移位,故经纬度并不是完全准确,但在可接受的范围内,这样古今地名便可贯通起来,使古代针路能在现代的地图上画出航线来。”参见(郑永常,2018)49。台湾“中研院”网页所登载的郑永常治学访谈中也可见有关研究方法的介绍,http://mingching.sinica.edu.tw/Academic_Detail/868,2020-10-16。
20 这张图(第7v图)上还绘制了两个“尖笔罗”。尖笔罗同外罗之间的相对位置,并不反映这两组岛屿在现实中的方位。
21 伦敦文物学会(Society of Antiquaries of London,SAL),https://www.sal.org.uk/collections/explore-our-collections/collections-highlights/maritime-direction-book/,2021-06-03.
22 包括:Edney(1996)、Jacob(1996)、Delano-Smith(1996)等3篇论文,以及由Ed Dahl撰写的引言和一组共有5人参加的讨论。
23 原文为:“complex assessments of the development of cartographic genres and processes within and between societies”。
24 原文为英文:“Since the war of 1840-1843, the intercourse of the Chinese with the English has led them to perceive the intricate superiority of English charts, which are now eagerly sought for by many masters of Chinese vessels. Hence native charts, like those in this book, are falling into disuse, & may soon be curiosities.”。
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